Visitor Perceptions of Captive, Endangered Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus) Used as Photo Props in Jemaa El Fna Square, Marrakech, Morocco

ABSTRACTVisitors to Jemaa El Fna Square can pay to have their photograph taken with Barbary macaques. Our aim was to characterize visitors’ perceptions of such photo props, enabling demand-reducing...

act as a photo prop 18 times per hour (personal observation, March 2013). Some tourists are charged as much as 100 Dirhams for a photo, although there are many Moroccan tourists who pay much less. Assuming an average price of 10 Dirhams and 8-hour working days, the above-mentioned infant could earn the handler the equivalent of the average monthly Moroccan household income (which was MAD 5,300 in 2009[CMC, 2009) in 3-4 working days; however, this estimate is highly variable due to the effects of the tourist season, weather, and the number of macaques being used at one time.
Nonhuman primates have a history of popularity in entertainment and photo opportunities (Agoramoorthy & Hsu, 2005;Wich & Marshall, 2016). Increasingly, the photo prop trade is recognized as a threat to primate conservation (Caine, Visalberghi, Schapiro, & Leighty, 2011). Osterberg and Nekaris (2015) surveyed the number of slow lorises (Nycticebus species) offered as photo props in a Thai resort over a six-month period and used existing reports and confiscations to further quantify the trade. Between 2008 and 2013 there were 1,374 reports of wildlife-the majority primates-being used for tourist entertainment, and an average of nine lorises available at any one time.
Incidental observation of the capture in India of slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus) for photography enthusiasts led Kanagavel, Sinclair, Sekar, and Raghavan (2013) to search a prominent wildlife photography website for instances of slow loris capture. They found 29 captures in the period 1995-2011, in 16 of which they evaluated the handling of the animal as unethical. Nekaris, Campbell, Coggins, Rode, & Nijman (2013) responded to the popularity of a YouTube video, "tickling slow loris," by analyzing comments of 11,200 commentators from 172 countries (principally North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand). The most frequent categories of comment mentioned the cuteness of the animal or wanting one as a pet. Over time, after the publication of a Wikipedia page and television documentary, comments mentioning welfare issues and the illegality of trade in lorises became more prevalent.
The public are increasingly cognizant of a moral obligation to minimize the suffering of animals (Agoramoorthy & Hsu, 2005;Hughes, 2001;Kirkwood, 2003), and moral or legal objections to the use of animals in tourist entertainment in Singapore (Agoramoorthy & Hsu, 2005), USA, and UK (Hughes, 2001) are documented. Disapprobation of poor animal welfare may negatively affect the visitor experience (Ruiz-Izaguirre & Eilers, 2012), where visitor experience is defined as the visitor's "immediate or ongoing, subjective and personal response to an activity, setting or event" (Packer & Ballantyne, 2016) and includes the total process of anticipating, making, and remembering a visit.
To our knowledge, the present study is the first to evaluate visitor perception of primate photo props in the streets or markets where they are offered. The aim of this study was to characterize visitors' perceptions of macaque photo props in Jemaa El Fna in order to: (a) enable information campaigns about welfare, conservation, and health/safety issues to be targeted; and (b) provide destination managers with the information to respond appropriately to any negative impacts of the photo prop trade on visitor experience.

Methods
Ethical approval was granted by Edinburgh Napier University Faculty of Health, Life and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee, and a research permit obtained from the Scientific Institute of Rabat. Jemaa El Fna Square was selected as the study site because of the high concentrations of visitors and captive macaques (van Lavieren, 2004).
Respondents were legal adults and gave their informed consent to participate. Visitors were asked their reasons for visiting Morocco, Marrakech, and Jemaa El Fna, their country of residence and the length of stay in Morocco, and whether they had seen the macaques, had their photo taken with a macaque, or intended to. This was followed by open-ended questions about what they enjoyed and did not enjoy about having their photo taken with a macaque or, if they did not have their photo taken, why they did not. There followed questions about whether it is legal in Morocco to offer to take someone's photograph with a Barbary macaque and whether the species is endangered. Statements about approval for the practice of using animals as photo props, whether the practice should be illegal, whether animals in the market are an attraction, and whether macaques may be harmful to the health and safety of tourists were then presented with 5-point Likert-format responses (Likert, 1932). Demographic questions (gender, age group (10-year bands), highest level of education completed, and income relative to perceived average income in their home country (lower third/middle third/higher third)) were presented last. The questionnaire was piloted on a sample of ten before translation and data collection: no alterations were made.
Questionnaires and consent forms were translated into French, Dutch, German, Spanish, and Arabic and administered by the first author and research assistants (17 Moroccans and 3 Europeans) each of whom was fluent in one or more of these languages and in English. Researcher-administered questionnaires were used to maximize return of completed forms and so that comprehension of the questions could be assisted if necessary. Research assistants were briefed each morning by the first author to ensure uniformity. Scenarios in which mock respondents expressed strong views and interviewers maintained a neutral tone were rehearsed.
The survey took place between 10am and 5pm over eight days between 28th March and 8th April 2013 during an Easter holiday when tourism was at a peak. Visitors to the square were approached on a next-to-pass basis (Veal, 2006) at the main exit points to the market to achieve high encounter rates of visitors who had seen macaques. The survey was introduced to visitors as concerning wildlife tourism in Jemaa El Fna Square. Respondents were allowed to omit any question they did not wish to answer, and responses were anonymous to encourage respondents to express honest views (Cargan, 2007). The number who declined to participate was not recorded. Each questionnaire took approximately five minutes.

Data Analysis
Intention and behavior of visitors in relation to macaque photo props were categorized as "hot", "warm," or "cold," using the following definitions adapted from Fredline and Faulkner's (2001) study of Australia's wildlife tourism: "hot" = intended to have their picture taken with a macaque before coming to the square and did have their picture taken with a macaque.
"warm" = either intended to have their picture taken with a macaque but did not; or did have their picture taken with a macaque without prior intention to do so.
"cold" = neither intended to have their picture taken with a macaque, nor did so. Responses to open-ended questions were subjected to thematic analysis as described in Braun and Clarke (2006), adopting a realist perspective in which the aim was to report the experiences, meanings, and reality of participants, rather than to explain the social discourses giving rise to the construction of those meanings. Once familiar with the data, we generated codes inductively in response to the data, rather than pre-determining codes from literature. Codes were then criticized, refined, grouped into themes, and the themes criticized and refined. The responses assigned to each code were then quantified.
Quantitative data were analyzed in SPSS ® Version 20 (Armonk, NY, USA), using nonparametric statistics because data were recorded using ordinal or categorical response formats.

Survey Respondents
Of the total 513 respondents to the survey, 271 (53%) were female, 220 (43%) were male, and gender was unrecorded for 22 (4%). Median age fell into the 31-40 years category, and age ranged from 18 to > 80 years.

Are Captive Barbary Macaques a Visitor Attraction to Jemaa El Fna Square?
Photo opportunities with Barbary macaques were an attraction prior to visiting Jemaa El Fna Square for only 39 visitors (8%). The majority of those who answered this question (462, 92%) did not intend to have their photograph taken with a macaque prior to visiting the square. Five percent of visitors (n = 26) were categorized as "hot," 7% (n = 36) as "warm," and 88% (n = 450) as "cold" (one did not answer this question).
The relation between nationality (Moroccan or other) and attractiveness of macaques as photo props (with the categories "hot" and "warm" combined to avoid low expected frequencies) was significant (chi-square test of independence: 2 = 47.65, n = 512, df = 1, p < 0.001), with macaques proving to be a greater attraction for Moroccans than other nationalities. Among Moroccan visitors, 21 (41%) fell into the "hot" or "warm" category, and 30 (59%) into the "cold" category, while of non-Moroccans 420 (92%) were in the "cold" category and 41 (8%) were in the "hot" or "warm" categories.
The proportions of each nationality falling into the "hot," "warm," and "cold" categories are displayed in Figure 1 for countries with the largest numbers of respondents.

Figure 1.
Attractiveness of macaque photo props by nationality. "Cold" = neither intended to use macaque photo props nor did; "warm" = either intended to use macaque photo props but did not or used macaque photo props but did not intend to do so before visiting; "hot" = both intended to have photo taken with a macaque and did so.
International visitors categorized as "hot" or "warm" in relation to macaque photo opportunities were younger (Mann-Whitney U = 4515; hot/warm n = 37, mean rank 141; cold n = 401, mean rank 227; p < 0.001), their highest educational qualification was lower (Mann-Whitney U = 4782; hot/warm n = 37, mean rank 148; cold n = 387, mean rank 219; p < 0.001), and their self-reported income relative to the perceived average income in their home country was lower (Mann-Whitney test, U = 4057; hot/warm n = 29, mean rank 155; cold n = 342, mean rank 189; p = 0.042) than international visitors in the "cold" category. Of international visitors categorized as "hot" or "warm" (n = 41), 23 also made negative comments about the experience.
The presence of macaques might be considered an attraction even for visitors who did not wish to have their photo taken, as part of the atmosphere and cultural heritage of the square. Therefore, we asked respondents to list their reasons for visiting Jemaa El Fna. Twelve percent (n = 63) listed animal entertainment among their reasons for visiting the square (Figure 2), but for only one was entertainment with animals the sole reason cited.

Visitor Experience and Attitudes toward Macaques in the Square
Visitors who had intended to have their picture taken but changed their minds cited reasons including trader harassment, hygiene concerns, mistreatment of macaques, and not yet having had the opportunity. The most frequently cited reason for not having a photograph taken with a macaque was concern for the animals' welfare (n = 100, 22% of responses) (Table 1). Finding the practice unacceptable was the most prevalent theme (204 comments were also concerned for their own wellbeing (57 comments). No-one specifically mentioned illegality of the practice, even those who expressed disapproval.
Those visitors who did have their photograph taken with a macaque were asked what they enjoyed and did not enjoy. The experience of the interaction was more important than getting Table 1. Categorization of visitors' reasons for not having their photo taken with a macaque, in descending order of frequency (n = 464 visitors who did not have their photo taken).

Number of Illustrative Quotes Responses (%)
No answer 17 (34.7%) Unusual experience 10 (20.4%) "it's a rare opportunity"; "first time I see a monkey"; "different"; "new experience" Contact with animal 6 (12.2%) "to be with a monkey"; "playing with the monkey" Did not enjoy it 6 (12.2%) "nothing"; "I didn't enjoy -I was forced" Having the photo 5 (10.2%) "souvenir"; "something to show later"; "the photo was beautiful" It was fun/enjoyable the photograph for the majority of visitors (Table 2), although some felt pressured into it by the macaque handlers, did not enjoy the experience, and made no positive comment (Table 3). Level of agreement with the statements displayed in Figure 3 indicate that the majority of visitors were not positively disposed toward the presence of captive macaques in the square.
Although 326 (66% who answered this question) agreed or strongly agreed that it should be illegal to keep macaques for photo opportunities, in answer to the question "Is it legal in Morocco to offer to take someone's photograph with a Barbary macaque?" 102 (20%) answered "no, it is not legal," 122 (24%) thought it was legal, 276 (54%) answered "don't know," and 13 (2%) did not answer. Asked; "Are Barbary macaques an endangered species?" 315 (61%) answered "no," 130 (25%) answered "yes," and 68 (13%) did not know or did not answer. Table 3. Responses to the question "If you did not enjoy the experience, why not?" (n = 49 visitors who did have their photo taken).

Are Macaques a Tourist Attraction or a Detraction?
The great majority of visitors did not intend to have their photograph taken with a macaque when planning to visit the square, and a large majority also omitted to mention animal entertainment when listing their reasons for visiting Jemaa El Fna. While some consider that the presence of macaques makes Marrakech a more lively and interesting place, a majority think that Marrakech would be a better place if the use of macaques in photo opportunities was banned and that it should be illegal. Two-fifths of visitors recognize it as harmful to the health and safety of tourists.
Our results show that the present situation is likely to detract from the experience of Jemaa El Fna Square for many visitors. This is reflected in the attitudes of visitors toward macaques in the square (Figure 3) and in the verbatim responses from visitors who did not want to have their photo taken with a macaque or did not enjoy the experience (Tables 1 and 3). The largest theme among positive responses was about novelty, indicating that other unusual performances or souvenirs could replace macaque photo props in these visitors' experiences of Jemaa El Fna Square.
The photo prop trade could be stopped without fear of impacting the international tourism market. Moroccan nationals are more interested but the existence of this market cannot be said to represent any benefit for Morocco: revenues gained by unlicensed macaque-handlers are likely to be untaxed and are more than offset by the ecological losses associated with macaque poaching (Butynski et al., 2008).

Poor Animal Welfare Adversely Affects Visitor Experiences
Studies consistently report that perception of poor animal welfare contributes to a negative experience or image of the destination for visitors (Godinez, Fernandez & Morrisey, 2013;Lee, 2015;Miller, 2012;Nimon, 1990, cited in Tribe 2001Plumridge & Fielding, 2003;Ruiz-Izaguirre & Eilers, 2012;Wolf & Tymitz, 1981, cited in Tribe, 2001. Visitors who did and who did not have their photo taken with a macaque expressed a negative perception of the animals' welfare. Much of the literature relates to zoo and aquarium visitors who have chosen to view captive animals, as distinct from the respondents in our study who may have had no such intention. As such, the proportion of visitors who feel antipathy to captivity on philosophical grounds may be greater in the present study than in other situations. Woods (2002) found that the most frequently mentioned feature (48%) of worst experiences with captive animals was poor husbandry; including confinement, dissimilarity of the captive environment with a natural one, interpreted distress of the animal, or perceived unhygienic conditions. Poor service for visitors was the next most frequently mentioned, followed by aggression by the animal (19% and 12% of worst experiences, respectively). Respondents in our study reported similar themes, with pity for the animals' welfare and dislike of trader harassment being mentioned both by those who did and by those who did not have their photograph taken, although fear was mentioned only by those who chose not to avail of photo opportunities. Since the experiences described by visitors to Jemaa El Fna share common themes with the worst experiences with captive wildlife that respondents in Woods ' (2002) study could recall in their lifetimes, captive macaques may have substantial negative impact on the visitor experience of Marrakech.
For six of the 49 visitors who described what they enjoyed about having their photograph taken with a macaque, contact with the animal was the most enjoyable thing; indicating that there is, as reported in other studies (Plumridge & Fielding, 2003;Ruiz-Izaguirre & Eilers, 2010), desire on the part of some visitors to interact with animals. In the main, we did not find the enjoyable interactions that Woods (2002) reported: 53% of visitors who had their photo taken with a macaque found something unpleasant about the experience. Woods's respondents most often described non-contact interactions with animals as the enjoyable aspect of experiences with captive wildlife, followed by opportunities for learning about the animal. Hughes (2001) uses a case study from the UK to describe how the performance of captive animals for entertainment came to be considered "morally unacceptable, such that the tourism and entertainment industries can no longer incorporate it into its provision," and calls this "an early sign for the tourism industry of the power of the animal rights and welfare lobby," as a result of which large UK attractions displaying performing dolphins closed while small businesses offering dolphin-watching tours flourished.

Moroccan Wildlife Tourism without Macaque Photo Props
There is opportunity for ecotourism enterprises, if appropriately managed, to provide a better experience for tourists who value animal encounters, while also being less damaging to wild macaque populations. The nature-based and ecotourism sector is one of the fastestgrowing in the international tourism market (Tisdell, 2003); it attracts tourists who stay longer (Menezes, Moniz, & Viera, 2008) and spend more (Weaver, 2001, pp. 45-46) than the average international visitor and are more likely to travel beyond international gateways (Fredline & Faulkner, 2001). Wildlife in non-captive settings are more likely to attract international visitors and provide a more intense, emotional, exciting, and engaging experience than most captive wildlife settings (Packer & Ballantyne, 2012).
Although Morocco aims to expand and diversify tourism, the distribution has remained rather constant, with 71% of nights in commercial accommodation spent in Marrakech, Agadir, and Casablanca and little international tourism outside the main historical capitals (Dobruszkes & Mondou, 2013). If an ethically driven structural shift similar to that described for the UK by Hughes (2001) were to occur in Morocco, the development of local entrepreneurs at the expense of illegal sole traders and some shift in visitation from the historical capitals to rural areas could be considered highly beneficial for the economic sustainability of Moroccan tourism.

Macaques in Culture
Although Moroccans were more likely to have their photo taken (or to want to), the full spectrum of attitudes toward macaque photo props was manifest among Moroccan visitors: objections to captivity and poor welfare, safety and hygiene concerns, dislike of harassment, as well as delight in the unusual. Greater interest from Moroccans may or may not reflect cultural differences in attitudes toward animals. Six (12%) respondents identifying as Moroccan were visiting the country, five of whom had their photo taken with a macaque or intended to. We might speculate that photos of Moroccan sights and fauna serve to strengthen the Moroccan identity of expatriates; however, explaining the reasons for differing interest between groups was beyond the scope of this study. Activities primarily targeted toward international visitors may represent global influences threatening authenticity because the original cultural heritage leading to the designation of World Heritage Site is about meeting the needs of the community for cultural expression (UNESCO, 2015). Schmitt (2005) regards those actors or elements of performance which "serve above all as decorative models for photographs" as a Disneyfication of the intangible cultural heritage of Jemaa El Fna Square: meaning that which is an "inauthentic, commodified and banalized modernization or reproduction of cultural forms removed from their original context." It could be argued that altering the activities of the square to reflect an animal welfare ethic held most strongly by Western Europeans favors the values of visitors over those of hosts and opens the authors to accusations of neo-colonialism. In the case of animals used as photo props, it can be countered that the practice itself is a symptom of the influence of a Western culture of commodification and over-consumption-the denial of wildness in animals and the removal of animals from their Moroccan habitat context for commutation into easily-consumable photographic souvenirs. This distancing from the natural world and representation of macaques as "cute" are consistent with the phenomenon of Disneyfication (sensu Baker, 1993 andInkson &Minnaert, 2012, p. 236) and consistent with the lack of recognition of risks posed by macaques (discussed below). Baker (1993) contends that until animals are disentangled from their Disneyfied representations, the animals' predicaments cannot be clearly seen, consistent with the finding that only 25% of our sample correctly identified Barbary macaques as an endangered species. Ross et al. (2008) described this phenomenon for chimpanzees: 95% of zoo visitors surveyed identified gorillas as endangered, 92% identified orangutans as endangered, but only 69% correctly assigned this status to chimpanzees. When asked to explain, 35% of people gave the reason that chimps are commonly seen in the media and can be privately owned, therefore the species must not be in jeopardy.

Macaques can be Harmful to the Health and Safety of Tourists and Handlers
Sixty percent of visitors disagreed or were unsure that macaques could be harmful to the health and safety of tourists, yet physiological similarities among all primates mean that close contact with nonhuman primates is considered a high-risk source of emerging infectious agents with the capacity to transfer between humans. Foreign tourists are a potential vehicle for global transmission of an emerging infectious agent.
Macaques can carry herpes B virus (Herpesvirus simiae-often asymptomatic in macaques but potentially severe in humans (Huff & Barry, 2003)), simian virus 40, simian foamy virus, and simian type D retrovirus, all of which can be transmitted to humans (Conly & Johnston, 2008). Returning French travelers presenting for rabies treatment had, in 20% of cases, acquired the infection from nonhuman primates including Barbary macaques in North Africa (Gautret et al., 2010). Monkeys account for 21% of animal-associated injuries to tourists and the majority of injuries to female travelers (Gautret et al., 2007), illustrating the potential for disease transmission due to bites. Lice (Pedicinus albidus) also provide a vector (Cohn et al., 2007). The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2017) advises that travelers should never touch or feed monkeys.
There are few data on how zoonotic disease affects tourism demand (Donohoe, Pennington-Gray, & Omodior, 2015) but if cases are publicized it is reasonable to expect a substantial impact on the image of the destination. Destination management plans should address prevention of disease threats as part of crisis management strategies (Pennington- Gray et al., 2009). Educational intervention (modifying the behavior of visitors to reduce risk of exposure) is a key component of such prevention (Donohoe, Pennington-Gray, & Omodior, 2015).

Visitor Education
Understanding differences in visitor behavior between market segments can be used to target informative strategies to specific groups (Brown, 1999;Brown, Ham, & Hughes, 2010;Kim & Weiler, 2012). Information campaigns (e.g., distributed by tour operators and in hotels) should particularly target Moroccans, European Moroccans, and arrivals from France and Spain, although provision of material in German and English is also important.
Psychosocial determinants of behavior are: awareness of the problem; attribution of some responsibility to oneself; feelings of guilt; and perception of the social norms surrounding the issue. These contribute to the formation of attitudes about the situation/behavior; development of a moral norm about what one should do; and a perception of the control one has over the issue through one's own behavior, together creating the intention to behave in a particular way (Bamberg & Moser, 2007). Ethically motivated behavior should occur when individuals are aware of adverse consequences for other beings and aware of how they personally could avert those consequences-particularly if the behavior is easy to carry out (Schwartz, 1973, 1977cited in Bamberg & Moser, 2007. Here, awareness of the conservation problem is lacking (75% failed to recognize macaques as endangered); a welfare problem was mentioned by only 22% of visitors and health risks by 40%, so there is scope to improve problem-awareness. Of those who did have their photo taken with a macaque, 12% most enjoyed contact with the animal, suggesting that this group also feels affinity for macaques and might therefore readily change their behavior if they became aware of negative consequences for the animals.
Laws reflect and express social norms and most visitors (80%) are unaware of the law so here, too, simple informative campaigns could influence a key behavioral determinant. A proportion of visitors already take the view that macaque photo props are unacceptable and reference moral norms such as "animals should not be beaten or chained" and "wild animals should be in the wild." One's social networks and role models influence perception of social norms, making social networking sites a useful target for campaigning organizations. Images of celebrities posing with animal photo props are potentially very damaging, but also present an opportunity for campaigning organizations to mobilize the sector of society who find this unacceptable to express their view in social media (e.g., Wild Futures, 2015).
In respect of the macaque handlers, the determinants of their behavior are almost entirely unknown. It is likely that contextual factors (ease of obtaining money and low probability of prosecution), habitual behavior, and low perceived behavioral control (few/no perceived alternative means of earning) are more important determinants of behavior in such a case than underlying values or attitudes (Steg & Vlek, 2009). Studies have been conducted into the drivers of hunting for the bushmeat trade (e.g., Lindsey et al., 2013;Nyaki, Gray, Lepczyk, Skibins, & Rentsch, 2014) but not for the photo prop trade. Law enforcement is important but also the availability of alternative employment for macaque handlers.

Conclusions and Recommendations
Macaques are an attraction for a minority of visitors but overall detract from the visitor experience. This reflects a wider picture shown by previous research: animals in tourism are a draw but this Visitor Perceptions of Captive, Endangered Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus) Used as Photo Props… is easily outweighed by pity for the animals' plight and disapproval of their conditions. Here, impacts on the visitor experience are particularly negative for international visitors.
Educational interventions have strong potential to reduce demand for macaque photo props. Such interventions should leverage moral norm activation, making visitors aware of negative consequences for macaques.